Digital screen time for under-twos is associated with long-term impacts on health and quality of life, and limited benefits, according to the most comprehensive systematic review yet of global peer-reviewed research into babies’ screen time.
Based on the findings, the iADDICT group of researchers from four UK universities recommends that under-twos should not receive any intentional, regular screen time. The academics are calling for any guidance that points under-twos to shared screen time, or suggests that screen technology is suitable for “all ages”, to be reconsidered.
Commissioned by the 1001 Critical Days Foundation, the research was conducted by academics across disciplines of mental health, physical health and social science from the University of Leeds, Leeds Trinity University, Aston University and Loughborough University.
Among the team was Dr Richard James, an expert in addictive behaviours in Loughborough University’s School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences.
“This research brings together an international evidence base concerning technology use during pregnancy and the first two years of life that has not been well understood to date”, he said.
“Despite recent policy guidance concluding that there is limited research specific to under twos, this review identified a substantial evidence base that suggests that digital media use - particularly TV, mobile phones, and tablets – is pervasive during this critical period and may be associated with potential harms.”
The study – which also invited 174 parents across the UK to share their views and concerns on young children’s screen use – found a lack of guidance from health professionals for parents about screen use.
The researchers believe this is a reminder of the discrepancies between government and healthcare guidance and the real challenges parents face daily and call for more targeted support.
Dr James said: “We hope the findings can inform parents, practitioners and policymakers to support sustainable technology use and inform the development of relevant guidance in young children.”
Assessing risk for babies
Existing guidance from the World Health Organization (2019) and the American Academy of Paediatrics (2024) recommends that under-twos avoid screen time but, according to the report, that is already being exceeded globally during the critical first 1001 days of life, from pregnancy to age two.
The harms of this include reduced opportunities to bond with caregivers, reduced play with peers, limited language development, increased risk of overstimulation, difficulty sleeping, eye health implications, increased risk of childhood obesity and reliance on devices for emotional regulation. However, the review does not establish causal links between screen use and specific developmental conditions.
The researchers are calling for the creation of a baby screen time risk assessment in collaboration with policymakers, healthcare workers and early years practitioners. This could help services to provide targeted support, guide families toward interactive alternatives, and intervene where developmental vulnerabilities may be emerging.
Professor Carmen Clayton, of Leeds Trinity University, said: “Screen time is heavily interwoven into the lives of many families throughout the day. Caregivers are calling for more guidance, but professional support is limited.
“The Government must consider how to engage with families better about problematic screen use, whilst being sensitive to the fear of judgement that many parents face when opening up about such issues.”
Tips for parents
More research is needed into which strategies are most effective for parents and caregivers wanting to reduce and cut out babies’ screen time. But the following strategies from the review have evidenced benefits:
- Taking children outdoors to spend time in nature prevents screen time and can benefit physical development and eye health.
- Avoiding using screens at mealtimes could correlate with healthier eating habits.
- Access to non-digital toys is beneficial for reducing screen time and improving development.
- Spending time in the physical presence of others – meeting, interacting and playing with other people – supports social development.
A wake-up call for society
The review also found that parent and caregiver screen time correlates with babies’ screen time, but the researchers emphasise that parents should not be the focus of blame or criticism here. Digital screens are embedded in our lives – from working, to buying groceries, accessing healthcare and communicating with friends and family – so passive screen exposure is inevitable.
To have healthy human futures, the researchers say we need to sustainably change our relationships with digital screens – including smartphones, tablets, TVs and games consoles – as a society. The first steps to societal change are focusing on understanding adult screen time thresholds and reconsidering any guidance on screen time for children.
Rafe Clayton, of the University of Leeds, said: “As we experience the digital revolution, problematic screen use among adults is common, yet the Government is not currently providing screen time guidelines for adults in the UK, despite the British people wanting them and expecting them.
“As role models, unguided adults are inadvertently teaching children and babies to develop unhealthy habits and relationships with screen devices, and this has to change.”
Dame Andrea Leadsom, Founder of 1001 Critical Days Foundation, said the review is a “wake-up call”.
"Screens are now part of everyday life and many families are navigating this challenge without the information and support they need. The responsibility cannot rest solely on their shoulders”, said Dame Leadson.
"That is why every family should have access to a Best Start Family Hub, where they could access trusted advice and practical help during their baby's earliest years.
"Technology companies must play their part too. Parents should not be presented with content that is labelled or promoted as suitable for babies when the evidence points to the contrary. It is time for a more honest approach to how content is promoted.
“Every baby should experience the best start in life. Helping parents navigate the digital world is an essential part of making that ambition a reality.”